Discussion of Efforts to Solve the Problem
Over the years, many research studies and professional articles have focused on vocabulary instruction. Specific topics included word selection (Nagy & Hiebert, 2011); Tier 1: the most basic words; Tier 2: high frequency words for more mature learners; and Tier 3 words: low frequency, domain-specific words (Beck, et al., 2002; Hutton, 2008); word frequency (Nagy & Hiebert, 2011); word origins and roots (Rasinski, Padak, Newton, & Newton, 2011); morphology (Apel & Thomas-Tate, 2009; Bowers & Kirby, 2010; Harris, Schumaker, & Deshler, 2011; McCutchen, Green, & Abbott, 2008; Solomyak, 2010; Stygles 2011); and word schema (Nagy & Hebert, 2011) . The focus of other studies on vocabulary instruction were primarily on incidental word learning through word exposure (Lane & Allen, 2010; Savino, 2011); word consciousness (Beck, McKeown & Kucan, 2002; Graves & Watts-Taffe, 2008; Winters, 2009); the modeling of sophisticated words (Lane & Allen, 2010); read-alouds (Elley, 1989; Manak, 2011; McCutchen & Logan 2011; Morrison & Okonkowski, 2010); word play and games (Athans & Devine, 2010; Cassar & Jang, 2010); and the importance of vocabulary instruction and vocabulary skills acquisition with regard to effects on students’ reading comprehension (Beck, 1982; Duke & Carlisle, 2011; Pressley, 2001).
The importance of vocabulary acquisition on reading comprehension is well documented (Blachowicz, Fisher, Ogle, & Watts-Taffe 2006; Lehr, Osborn, & Hiebert, 2005; McCutchen & Logan, 2011). Although less work has been done on the effects of vocabulary instruction on students’ writing, the reciprocal effects of reading and writing suggest that both reading comprehension and writing quality are affected by strong vocabulary instruction. Graves (1997) explained the difference between receptive (understanding of words heard or read in print) and productive or expressive (words used in speech or writing) vocabularies. Students’ productive vocabulary is much smaller but can be increased through explicit instruction such as word analysis skills instruction. Incidental word learning activities expand the receptive vocabulary during reading or exposure to words through activities, where tools such as context clues are used by the student to determine word meanings. While some researchers have included some writing outcomes as part of their research, few studies have touched on reading comprehension in the study of vocabulary instruction. The scope of these studies was broadened to look at writing outcomes as well as the relationship to measures of vocabulary (Campbell-Rush, 2008; Donovan & Smolkin, 2006; Olinghouse & Leaird, 2009; Thompson, 2011).
Other literacy professionals have focused on Analytical Trait Writing models as a successful model or guideline for practice and assessment of writing instruction. The Six +1 Traits model (Culham, 2006) is an example of this approach to writing instruction and assessment and provides the language with which teachers and students can analyze and gauge good writing (Culham, 2006; Fry & Griffin, 2010; Harp, 2006). The traits in this model (Ideas, Word Choice, Voice, Sentence Fluency, Organization, and Conventions) provide guidelines for writing instruction and assessment (including self-assessment). Presentation, an additional trait, rates the look of the piece and focuses on the production of the writing. Word Choice is the trait that is specific to vocabulary and the use of more expressive, descriptive, and “artful” words. Instruction that includes incidental and intentional learning of new words is important in order to improve writing in this trait area. Ideas, Word Choice, and Voice are traits that require creative expression in writing as opposed to Sentence fluency, Organization, and Conventions, which are more rule-driven (i.e. spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, structure, etc.). These traits and the language they involve become powerful tools in instructing students in the creative process of writing. Although some writing rubrics include grammar as part of an assessment of the Word Choice, this rule-driven aspect of writing is assessed as part of the Conventions scoring. Word Choice is treated as a guideline to prompt students to substitute richer synonyms for the bland, common words they too often use in their writing.
