Literature Review
Vocabulary, as part of word learning and literacy skills, has been researched by many literacy professionals, (Athans & Devine, 2010; Behlol & Kaini, 2011; Carpenter, Gehsmann, Smith, Bear, & Templeton, 2009) and in Bringing Words to Life, Beck, et al., (2002), explore what it means to “know” a word. Beck, et al., call this incremental word learning as words are graded in terms of how well they are known, from not at all up to knowing them well.
Most researchers have stated that the most compelling reason to provide vocabulary instruction is for the contribution it makes to reading comprehension (Blachowicz et al., 2006; Lehr, Osborn, & Hiebert, 2005; McCutchen & Logan, 2011). An “in-depth understanding of word meaning” is required for good comprehension (Morrison & Okonkowski, 2010, p. 18). Word study has been approached in different ways such as skills-bulding activities, such as sentence frames (Donnelly & Roe, 2010), and others that specifically target increasing word knowledge, (Athans & Devine, 2010; Bloodgood & Paacifici, 2004; Graves & Watts-Taffe, 2008). Understanding the morphology of words (word families), has been reported by many literacy professionals, as an essential part of word knowledge (Bear, etal, 2008; Bolte, 2009; Boushey & Moser, 2009; Bowers & Kirby, 2010; Carlisle, 2010; Harris, Schumaker & Deschler, 2011). Most importantly it fosters independent word learning, decoding meaning, and the internalization of words, as students incorporate words into their internal lexicon of word knowledge. Through a process of “many encounters with both spoken and written words in varying contexts…the student gradually acquires ‘ownership’ of the word” (Lehr, et al 2005, p. 4).
Words have been categorized using a 3-tiered system. Tier 1 words are basic words, which do not require direct instruction. Tier 3 words are context-specific, low frequency, domain-specific words which are learned on an as-needed basis. Tier 2 words, which are the focus of this study, are high-frequency words that occur across various domains. “These words occur often in mature language situations such as adult conversations and [in] literature, and therefore strongly influence speaking and reading. These are the most important words for direct instruction because they are good indicators of a student’s progress through school” (Hutton, 2008, pp. 2-3). Criteria for identifying Tier 2 words; instructional strategies for each type of learning task involved in the instruction of unknown words; work with synonyms; use of semantic maps to teach multiple meaning words; independent word-learning strategies such as generative word knowledge, effective dictionary instruction, context clues and morpheme and morphology study; the development of word consciousness; computer-related instruction; and instruction English language learners (ELLs) are all examined in A Focus on Vocabulary (Lehr, et al., 2005, pp. 12-18). Lehr, (2005) et al, believe that, “The challenge is to put what we know to work in the classrooms of American schools”
Incidental word learning through read-alouds and wide reading is part of the process of word knowledge. Going beyond word learning, students glean word knowledge from oral and written contexts. By combining discussion and explanation of words and questioning word meanings, students’ vocabulary abilities can be significantly increased (Morrison & Okonkowski, 2010).
Literacy professionals have examined the kinds of reading necessary to produce vocabulary growth, by means of teacher read-alouds, wide reading, and discussions about books. The focus is on the importance of appropriate reading, the fact that students should read for various purposes, and read texts at various levels of difficulty (Lehr, et al., 2005). Exposure to words during reading also aids in the development of comprehension, as words encountered during reading are incorporated incidentally into the student’s word schema (Duke & Carlisle, 2011).
In 2011, Manak did a study of the effects of interactive read-alouds on third-grade writing. She reported that students “learned to read like writers as they …noticed and examined the author’s craft” and “wrote with the reader in mind” (Manak, 2011, p. 10). This makes the case not only for incidental word learning, but also for the incidental and intentional acquisition of the thinking process that begins to occur as students learn to discuss the craft features or traits of good writing.
The use of vocabulary notebooks as “personalized dictionaries for writing assignments” in which students record “ the definition, part of speech, other forms of the words, a couple of synonyms, and two original sentences” provide easy access to words as students are writing, and eventually, “the words (become) second nature to students” (Kinloch, 2011, p. 115). Guidelines for teaching words call for: (1) gradually teaching the derivative forms of the word; (2) introducing affixes with words that “carry its most common meaning”; and (3) deconstructing and reconstructing words that have meaningful parts, pointing out the meaning of each part (Mountain, 2005, p. 747). Also, using pictures as part of the lesson increases the effectiveness of the instruction (Graves & Watts-Taffe, 2008, p. 5). Finally, electronic texts can be motivating and effective in word learning as they call “on the students to actively engage with the words” (Blachowicz, et al., 2006, p. 533).
Spelling is also an aspect of word knowledge, and stages of word knowledge development are important for teachers to understand, as they “reflect students’ understandings of how sounds, patterns, and meaning are represented in English spelling” and what “individuals understand about the spelling system” (Bloodgood & Pacifici, 2004, p. 251). Additionally, students will have better success understanding word construction by knowing “how syllables work prior to affix instruction to better understand how words can be broken into chunks or parts before adding meaning to the mix” (Stygles, 2011, p. 61).
In the study by Harris, et al., (2011) word building and morphological analysis strategies using word maps were described and utilized Results of this study showed that both learning disabled and non learning disabled secondary level students performed well on the use of strategies for morphological analysis and word knowledge after interventions in those areas (Harris, et al., 2011, p. 32).
Participants in a study on the effects of morphological awareness instruction on reading and spelling ability showed gains in accuracy and ability “to generalize to new words,” showing the benefits of including this type of intervention into a program of linguistic awareness (Kirk & Gillon, 2009, p. 341).
Promoting word consciousness and incidental vocabulary growth can be accomplished as part of classroom routines as in “The Weather Watcher” and “Affable Annie” examples of a vocabulary-rich classroom, deliberately modeling sophisticated vocabulary use (Lane & Allen, 2010, p. 362). Word consciousness also can be promoted through wordplay, idea completion, and word association activities. Idioms, clichés, and puns also are engaging and fun, and can be fostered through writing lessons, which are “deliberately designed to focus [students’] attention on words” (Graves & Watts-Taffe, 2008, pp. 188-189). Word exposure, word play, and word consciousness also are promoted in an article on the importance of using rich vocabulary activities with word parts from Shakespeare as a model (Savino, 2011, pp. 446-451).
The morphological study of words, building vocabulary by means of Latin and Greek root words, is described in an article by Rasinski et al., (2011). In this article, a table of elementary level Latin and Greek roots and affixes are provided, so that “students learn to ‘look inside’ of words for familiar letters, word families, and other letter patterns” (Rasinski et al., 2011, p. 135).
Using rich vocabulary in writing is important in getting across feelings and concepts, and in accurately expressing these to the reader. The importance of understanding the language of writing is detailed in resources on Analytical Trait Writing, which analyzes students’ writing according to traits such as word choice, sentence fluency, conventions, ideas, voice and organization, (Campbell-Rush, 2008; Culham, 2006; Fry & Griffin, 2010; Harp, 2006). Providing instruction in word learning contributes to better writing as word choice enriches the quality of writing. According to the NAEP study in 2003, students were not receiving enough instruction in writing (Manzo, 2003). Teaching students the language of 6 Traits writing, guides instruction and provides a tool for assessment (Culham, 2006). Part of 6 Traits writing, focuses on word choice as an important component of strong writing. Instruction that helps build word schema, increases the likelihood that students will incorporate richer words into their writing.
The value of dialogue during the writing process is reported as well. According to Culham, (2006), involving students in conversations about writing, using writer’s vocabulary, are necessary “to celebrate what works in a given piece of writing, to explain what still needs work, and to offer advice on how to improve”. “Dialogic teaching offers the means to nurture all students’ navigation through the process of learning to write” (Beattie, 2007, p. 173). “This talk [functions] as a tool for students to become connected to their understandings and helped develop their intentionality as writers” (Laman, 2011, p. 141). Providing opportunities during the writing process to talk allows students to put into words those strategies that they are working on, giving the teacher “vital information regarding students’ understandings” (Laman, 2011, p. 141), in order to help inform instruction. Appropriate dialogue during the writing process helps students become more familiar with the writing process.
In the study by Olinghouse and Leaird (2009), the story construction subtest in the TOWL-3 was used to assess polysyllabic words use in fourth-graders’ writing as a measure of quality word use. The results of this study showed greater use of polysyllabic words by fourth graders as compared to second graders’ use. Olinghouse and Leaird posited,
the field of written composition would benefit greatly [on the focus on teaching] specific vocabulary or vocabulary strategies [and] may be an effective method of improving writing quality. Disentangling [the] complex relationships [of reading and writing] is essential to improving classroom instruction in these areas (pp. 562-563).
Vocabulary instruction that includes skill-building exercises that help students decode words when a new word is encountered increases understanding of how words are constructed and gives deeper meaning to the words (Beck, et al, 2002). As richer words are reviewed, practiced, and students are exposed to various forms of these words, students gain the necessary skills to add these words to their schema and are more likely to incorporate these words into their writing in order to add to the quality of their writing. Having the language of the Six Traits gives students the tools for self-assessment when developing their writing, as students are able to self assess and discuss the assessment with their teacher, this common language allows for clarity in understanding what needs to be strengthened in the revision and editing stage of the writing process. Understanding specifically what is called for in writing with regard to idea development, voice, and word choice, increases the likelihood that they will consider adding richer words into their writing as part of the process of improving the quality of their writing (Culham, 2006).
